Persian Leopard

The Persian leopard (Panthera pardus ciscaucasica), also called Caucasian leopard, is the largest leopard subspecies, and is native to eastern Turkey, the Caucasus mountains, northern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, and parts of western Afghanistan. It is endangered throughout its range with fewer than 871–1,290 mature individuals and a declining population trend.

 

 

 

 

Characteristics

 

The Persian leopard is large, weighing up to 60 kg (130 lb), and light in color.
Biometric data collected from 25 female and male individuals in various provinces of Iran indicates average body length of 259 cm (102 in). A young male from northern Iran weighed 64 kg (140 lb).

Distribution and habitat

 

There has been a huge decline in the former range of the leopard in the Caucasus, which is estimated to have once covered the whole region, except for steppe areas. The severe economic crisis following major political and social changes in 1992 in the former Soviet Union, together with a weakening of formerly effective protection systems resulted in a sharp rise in hunting of wild ungulates, persecution of leopards and fragmentation of the ranges of all wildlife. As of 2008, of the estimated 871-1,290 mature leopards

• about 200–300 survive in Afghanistan, where their status is poorly known;
• fewer than 10–13 survive in Armenia;
• fewer than 10–13 survive in Azerbaijan;
• fewer than 5 survive in Georgia;
• about 550–850 live in Iran, which is the leopard stronghold in Southwest Asia;
• about 3–4 survive in Nagorno-Karabakh;
• fewer than 10 survive in the Russian North Caucasus;
• fewer than 5 survive in Turkey;
• about 78–90 live in Turkmenistan.

Their habitat consists of subalpine meadows, broadleaved forests and rugged ravines from 600–3,800 metres (2,000–12,500 ft) in the Greater Caucasus, and rocky slopes, mountain steppes, and sparse juniper forests in the Lesser Caucasus and Iran. Only some small and isolated populations remain in the whole ecoregion. Suitable habitat in each range country is limited and most often situated in remote border areas. Local populations depend on immigration from source populations in the south, mainly in Iran.
The Persian leopard is a flag-ship species. Its presence is a sign of the health of the entire ecosystem.

In Armenia

 

In Armenia, people and leopards co-existed since the early Holocene. By the mid-20th century leopards were relatively common in the country's mountains. Today, the leopard stronghold is the rugged and cliffy terrain of Khosrov State Reserve, located south-east of Yerevan on the south-western slopes of the Geghama mountains, where between October 2000 to July 2002 tracks of no more than 10 individuals were found in an area of 780 km² (300 sq mi). Leopards were known to live on the Meghri Ridge in the extreme south of Armenia, where only one individual was camera-trapped between August 2006 to April 2007, and no signs of other leopards were found during track surveys conducted over an area of 296.9 km² (114.6 sq mi). The local prey base could support 4–10 individuals, but poaching and disturbance caused by livestock breeding, gathering of edible plants and mushrooms, deforestation and human-induced wild fires are so high that they exceed the tolerance limits of leopards.

In Azerbaijan

 

Leopards are present in the Talysh Mountains in the farsoutheast, where their habitat is continuous with that on the Iranian side of Talysh Mountains. They also survived in northwest Azerbaijan in the Akhar-Bakhar section of Ilisu State Reserve in the foothills of the Greater Caucasus until recently, but current numbers are extremely low.
Despite occasional sightings, it was not clear whether leopards had been extinct in Azerbaijan by the late 1990s, until a specimen was camera-trapped in March 2007 in the Hirkan National Park.

In Georgia

 

Since 1954, leopards were thought to be extinct in Georgia — killed by hunters. In April 2001, an adult female was shot on the border to Kabardino-Balkaria, her two cubs captured and taken to the Novosibirsk Zoo in Russia. In the winter of 2003, zoologists found footprints of a leopard in Vashlovani Reserve in southeastern Georgia and later camera-trapped one young male individual several times. Leopard signs have also been found at two localities in Tusheti, the headwaters of the Andi Koisu and Assa rivers, bordering Dagestan.
Over the last 60 years, there have been several sightings of leopards around the Tbilisi area and in the Shida Kartli province to the northwest of the capital. Leopards live primarily in dense forests, although several have been spotted in the lowland plains in the southeastern region of Kakheti in 2004. 

In Iran

 

Leopards are mainly found in the Alborz and the Zagros mountain ranges. These ranges cover a vast area starting from the borders with Turkey, Azerbaijan and Armenia, extending to the Caspian litoral region and on to Turkmenistan and western parts of Afghanistan in the Alborz range. Along the Zagros range, leopard habitats extend to the south of Iran, close to the Persian Gulf.
Seventy four protected and non-protected areas were identified across the country in recent years as sites where leopards are present. However, 69% of them are located in the Hircanian forests and Alborz mountain range in the northern part of Iran. This area is regarded as one of the most important habitats for leopards in the country. Even though studies revealed that leopards in Iran inhabit a wide range of temperatures ranging from −23 °C (−9 °F) to 49 °C (120 °F), they are most often found in the habitats with temperature of 13 to 18 °C (55 to 64 °F), 0 to 20 days of ice cover per year and rain fall of more than 200 mm/year.
In Bamu National Park located northeast of Shiraz in Fars Province, camera trapping carried out from autumn 2007 to spring 2008 revealed seven individuals in a sampling area of 321.12 km² (123.99 sq mi).

In the North Caucasus regions of Russia

 

Signs of leopard presence have been found in the upper Andiyskoe and Avarskoye Koisu rivers in Dagestan. According to local reports leopards may also occur in Ingushetia, Ossetia and Chechnya. Leopards no longer occur in the Western Caucasus. In 2009, a leopard reintroduction centre was created in Sochi National Park, where two male leopards from Turkmenistan are being kept since September 2009, and two females from Iran since May 2010. Their descendants will be released into the wild in the Caucasus Biosphere Reserve.

Ecology and behaviour

 

Leopards' diet varies depending on the habitat of their territory. Their principal prey is the most abundant ungulate such as Bezoar goat, roe deer, Goitered gazelle, West Caucasian tur, mouflons, urial, and wild boar. They also prey on smaller wildlife such as Crested porcupine and Cape hare, and occasionally attack livestock and herd dogs.
Studies revealed that presence of leopards in Iran is highly correlated with presence of wild goat and wild sheep. Opportunistic predation on smaller prey species is also probable. Attack of a leopard individual on onager was also recorded.

Threats

 

Persian leopards are threatened by poaching, depletion of their prey base due to poaching, human disturbance such as presence of military and training of troops in border areas, habitat loss due to deforestation, fire, agricultural expansion, overgrazing, and infrastructure development.
In Iran, primary threats are habitat disturbances followed by illegal hunting and excess of livestock in the leopard habitats. The leopards' chances for survival outside protected areas appear very slim. Intensive dry condition in wide areas of leopard habitats in recent years is affecting leopard main prey species such as wild goat and wild sheep.

In captivity

 

As of December 2011, there are 112 captive Persian leopards in zoos worldwide. Within the European Endangered Species Programme 48 male, 50 female and 5 unsexed individuals less than 12 months of age are kept.

Taxonomic history

 

The Russian explorer Satunin first described the Caucasian leopard P.p. ciscaucasica in 1914 on the basis of a specimen from the Kuban region of North Caucasus. The British zoologist Pocock described specimens from different areas of Persia as P. p. saxicolor in 1927, recognizing the similarity to P.p. ciscaucasica. Today, these names are considered synonyms.

Lear's Macaw

The Lear's Macaw (Anodorhynchus leari), also known as the Indigo Macaw, is a rare Brazilian parrot with a highly restricted range. It is metallic blue with a faint, often barely visible, tinge of green, and a yellow patch of skin at the base of the heavy, black bill. It weighs around 950 g (2 pounds) and is 75 cm (30 inches) long. It was named after the poet, author, and artist, Edward Lear, who published many drawings and paintings of live parrots in zoos and collections. One of his paintings in his book Illustrations of the Family of the Psittacidae, or Parrots strongly resemble this species, although at the time it was believed to be a Hyacinth Macaw — a species which is larger, darker, and has a differently shaped patch of yellow skin adjacent to the base of the bill.

Description

 

The Lear's Macaw is a large parrot at 70–75 cm (27.5–30 in.) long. The body, tail, and wings are dark blue and the head is a slightly paler shade. It has an area of bare pale-yellow skin adjacent to the base of its beak, and orange-yellow eyerings. It has a large blackish beak and dark grey feet. The general appearance of the Lear's Macaw is similar to the larger Hyacinth macaw and the smaller Glaucous Macaw. The Hyacinth Macaw can be distinguished by its darker plumage, lack of greenish tinge, and a differently shaped patch of yellow skin adjacent to the base of the bill, and the Glaucous Macaw is paler and has a more greyish head.

Habitat

 

The Lear's Macaw lives in stands of Licuri palm, the nuts of which form a prominent part of its diet. This habitat, while never plentiful, is currently estimated to be around 1.6% of its original cover. The Lear's Macaw also requires a sandstone cliff in which to nest. In order to nest there they apply their saliva to the sandstone which softens it, then excavate small crevasses using their beaks and scrape the dust out of their soon-to-be nests with their feet. They may be found in Rio de Janeiro.

Behavior

 

Lear's Macaws adapt to their environment in interesting ways. For example, when a group of macaws are searching for food or a new nesting ground, a small advance party of males will "scout out" the approaching terrain for the safety of the rest of the group. In addition, when danger is found on these hunts for new territory the macaws will let out their signature call which can be heard for miles. The macaw can reach flight speeds of up to 35 miles per hour to escape predators or poachers.

Breeding

The Lear's Macaw’s rate of reproduction is 1–2 eggs per year during their mating season from December to May. However, not all pairs of birds mate often or at all. Lear's Macaws reach sexual maturity at around 2–4 years of age, but its life span can be anywhere from 30–50 years or more

Conservation

 

The population of the Lear's Macaw, as of 1994, was 140 birds. As reported by the American Bird Conservancy and Fundação Biodiversitas, the population of the Lear's Macaw rose to 751 birds as of July 2007. It is currently listed as an Endangered species (CITES I). As well as habitat loss the Lear's Macaw has historically suffered from hunting and more recently, trapping for the aviary trade. In addition, the cows that live near its nesting grounds often stand on the roots of young Licuri palms causing a large loss of food for these birds. In fact, though the life span of these palms can be 30–50 years most trees do not make it over 8–10 years causing a critical shortage of food supply for the birds. Various conservation organizations such as Fundação Biodiversitas, SAVE Brasil, Loro Parque Fundación, Parrots International, and the Lymington Foundation, along with local ranchers and other independent organizations are working to help conserve the species. Biodiversitas created the Canudos Biological Station in 1993 to protect the sandstone cliffs used by the macaws to nest.
All present Lear's Macaw conservation projects are managed under the authority of IBAMA. The Committee For The Conservation And Management Of The Lear's Macaw advises IBAMA on the conservation of the Lear's Macaw. Participation in the Committee is by invitation by IBAMA and includes Brazilian and international organizations and individuals.

From the American Bird Conservancy 18 July 2007 Press Release:

The count of the Lear's Macaw population was undertaken by Fundação Biodiversitas staff in June 2007 at the Canudos Biological Station in Brazil, a reserve supported by ABC. A total of 751 individuals were counted as they flew out of the canyons where they roost and nest to their licuri palm feeding areas. The global population in 1987 was just 70 birds, the 2003 census was 455, and until last month’s count, the current population was estimated at 600.

In 2009 the conservation status of the species was downgraded to endangered from critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This was prompted by an increase in the population, which based on annual 2009 counts at the Toca Velha and Serra Branca roosting sites is estimated to be approximately 1000 individuals.

History

 

Illustration by Edward Lear (1812–88) first published in his book Illustrations of the Family of the Psittacidae, or Parrots in 1832

For over a century after it had been described, the whereabouts of the wild population was unknown. It was eventually rediscovered in 1978 by ornithologist Helmut Sick in Bahia in the interior northeast of Brazil. Some thought the bird was a hybrid or variant involving the similar Hyacinth Macaw. However, this idea was soon abandoned, as both plumage, size, and proportions of the Lear's Macaw differ from those of its close relatives. The Lear's Macaw was actually first seen by the public in 1950 in a Brazilian zoo.